JOURNAL PAPER

Mahmuda Akand, The Problems of Moral Absolutism: An Analysis, The Jahangirnagar Review, Part-C, XXXV, 1, pp.167-176, 2024. doi: https://doi.org/10.59185/jurpc.v35i1.99

Abstract: Moral absolutism holds that human actions should be guided and assessed by some absolute principles which are inviolable. That is, moral principles are context-neutral and applicable for all societies, cultures and for every human being. But we often find ourselves perplexed with the complexities of the situations in which we need to make a concrete decision and have to act accordingly. In this type of situations, only one simple principle may not be upheld without hesitations, since multiple considerations guided by equally significant principles are involved. Facing this type of situations while holding an absolutist outlook seems difficult. Thus, moral relativists claim that moral absolutism is not equipped enough to resolve the real-life issues or dilemmas which torment us often. This paper has analyzed the sources and types of moral absolutism and has suggested that moral absolutists have failed to provide proper justifications for their claims about the absoluteness or the inviolability of the moral standards and principles they consider to be absolute. This research also has pointed out and discussed the conceptual errors the absolutists have made in their proposals. Finally, this paper has shown that the problems of moral absolutism are not easy to resolve, since it requires to compromise the basic assumption, that moral principles are absolute and inviolable, on which the absolutist outlook relies on.

Mahmuda Akand, ব্যক্তিমানুষের অধিবিদ্যক ধারণা এবং ভিন্ন স্থান ও কালে ব্যক্তির অভিজ্ঞতার আংশিক বিবেচনা সম্পর্কিত সমস্যা, The Jahangirnagar Review, Part-C, Vol-XXXIII, pp.19-32, 2022.

সার-সংক্ষেপ- ব্যক্তিমানুষের যথাযথ ধারণা ছাড়া নানা ক্ষেত্রে ব্যক্তির দায়িত্ব এবং অধিকার চিহ্নিত করা সম্ভব নয়। ব্যক্তির অভিজ্ঞতার সমষ্টিকে ব্যক্তিসত্তাকে শনাক্ত করবার উপায় বলে মত প্রকাশ করেছেন অনেক দার্শনিক। নানা স্থান ও কালে ব্যক্তি যেসকল অভিজ্ঞতা লাভ করেন তার সামগ্রিক বিবেচনা ও ভিনড়বতা দ্বারাই একজন ব্যক্তিকে অপর ব্যক্তি হতে আলাদা করা যায়। কিন্তু, ব্যক্তির অধিকার এবং কর্তব্য নির্ধারণের ক্ষেত্রে স্থান ও কালের বিবেচনায় ভিনড়ব আদর্শ বা নিয়ম অনুসারণ করবার প্রয়োজনীয়তা ব্যক্তির সামগ্রিক বিবেচনাকে বাধাগ্রস্ত করে। ব্যক্তি ভিনড়ব স্থান ও কাল, তথা ভিনড়ব প্রেক্ষাপটে আলাদ নিয়ম ও আদর্শ অনুসরণে বাধ্য হলেও তার নিজ চেতনায় অভিজ্ঞতাগুলোকে খ-িত বা সম্পর্কহীনভাবে প্রত্যক্ষ করেন না, বরং অভিজ্ঞতার প্রবাহেই নিজেকেই চিহ্নিত করেন। ভিনড়ব স্থান বা কালের ব্যক্তির দায়িত্ব বা অধিকার নির্ধারণে ব্যক্তিকে শুধুমাত্র ওই স্থান বা কালের সাপেক্ষে বিবেচনা করা হলে ব্যক্তির সামগ্রিক অভিজ্ঞতা সেখানে অন্তর্ভুক্ত করা হয়না। এই প্রবন্ধটিতে দেখানো হয়েছে যে, ভিনড়ব প্রেক্ষাপটে ব্যক্তির অভিজ্ঞতার আংশিক বিবেচনা দ্বারা ব্যক্তিমানুষের দায়িত্ব ও অধিকার চিহ্নিত করা হলে তা ব্যক্তিমানুষকে সিদ্ধান্ত গ্রহণের ক্ষেত্রে সংকটে ফেলে। সেই সাথে, এই সংকট থেকে ব্যক্তিমানুষকে মুক্ত করতে নানা স্থান ও কালে ব্যক্তির দায়িত্ব নির্ধারণের জন্য অনুসরণীয় আদর্শ ও নিয়মগুলোকে ব্যক্তির সামগ্রিক অভিজ্ঞতা বিবেচনায় সমন্বয় করবার প্রয়োজনীয়তার উপর জোর দেয়া হয়েছে এই প্রবন্ধে।

Mahmuda Akand, The Role of Intention, Convention, Resemblance and Habit in Communication by Using Language, Anwesan: A Research Journal of Philosophy, XXI, pp.139-152, 2022.

Abstract- Language is a medium of communication. But there are debates in philosophy of language regarding the process of communication through language. Some claims that we follow the conventions of language use and these conventions interpret the meaning to the language users. They explain meaning by the logical analysis of the components of language. On the other hand, sometimes we communicate successfully without following any prior set of rules or conventions. H.P. Grice and his followers maintain that we can understand and explain this type of communications in terms of speaker’s intentions and have constructed a well-accepted theory of meaning in philosophy of language. It is notable that Grice himself and his followers have noticed and addressed that conventions are not completely excluded in this process. Speaker’s intention, in Gricean theory, is interpreted considering conventions, contexts and hearer’s intention to cooperate. But, how does the audience understand speaker’s intention in a particular context to mean something by saying something? Are conventions and consideration of contexts sufficient for communicating? This research has addressed these questions and has shown that the audience understands what the speaker wants to communicate not only by conventions with the association of the context but also by the resemblance of their habits of relating an expression with a linguistic element.

Mahmuda Akand, An Analysis of the Concept of Liberty and Equality in John Rawls’ Theory of Justice, The Jahangirnagar Review, Part-C, XXXII, pp.445-466, 2021.

Abstract: John Rawls’ theory of justice has shown that the world is unjust and we have the responsibility to minimize the injustice that prevails. He has designed a model of justice in which ensuring the neutral choice of justice principle is required and liberty and equality of all should be preserved. His justice model bases on a hypothetical position named as original position and two basic principles. Apparently, it seems that Rawls’ model is a noble one to address the injustice issues in the existing world. But this theory has received several criticisms from many philosophers. This paper has analyzed the concept of liberty and equality in Rawls’ theory of justice and has shown that Rawls failed to uphold the promised equal liberty for all. This research has also considered the views of Robert Nozick and Amartya Sen regarding Rawls’ theory and has suggested that a proper theory of justice needs to include rectification principles along with the consideration of various contexts and alternatives.

Mahmuda Akand, The High Court Division (Bangladesh) Verdict Acknowledging Mother as Legal Guardian of a Child and its Probable Impact on the Person and the Respective Society, Asian Studies, 42, pp.85-93, 2023.

Abstract- Social values and laws, both require to evolve following better conscience and reason. Recently, the High Court Division of Bangladesh has ruled that mothers can be the sole guardian of children. Before this verdict, only fathers were considered as legal guardians in Bangladesh and it was a practice that an individual, a child or a student, will be identified by father’s identity only. This paper shows that this verdict has not only provided an individual, in Bangladesh, with the opportunity to be identified only by mother’s identity, in required cases, but also has created an opportunity to rethink about the idea of individual identity which may influence the perceptions of Bangladeshi society regarding identity, human dignity and gender relations.

Mahmuda Akand, An Analysis of Kripke's Definition of Speaker's Referent, The Jahangirnagar Review, Part-C, XXXI, pp.445-457, 2020.

Abstract- Kripke admits that Donnellan's distinction between two different uses of definite descriptions are of great importance. But he denies that this distinction can pose any threat to Russell's theory of definite descriptions. Kripke distinguishes between semantic reference and speaker's reference by using Gricean apparatus and analyzes Donnellan's referential-attributive distinction to show that the referential use of definite descriptions is not a concern for a unitary theory of definite descriptions. This paper analyzes Kripke's definition of speaker's referent and the Gricean account of meaning to argue that Kripke's definition of speaker's referent is inconsistent with the Gricean account. Though, Kripke has claimed that he has followed Gricean notion of speaker's meaning while defining speaker's referent, his definition fails to include the role of the hearer or audience in the process of determining speaker's reference. A new definition of speaker's referent has also been provided here which is consistent with the Gricean account of speaker's meaning.] Reference" has shown that Donnellan's distinction between the attributive and the referential use of definite descriptions doesn't pose any threat to Russell's theory of definite description. In the same paper he has claimed that Donnellan's distinction does not seem to involve any semantic ambiguity regarding the truth value of a sentence containing definite description. He has differentiated between semantic reference and speaker's reference and has considered Donnellan's referential-attributive distinction

Mahmuda Akand, Ground of Induction, Copula, XXXVI, 2019.

Induction as a process of inference provides us with new knowledge. This knowledge is revealed through observing particular instances using some general propositions. A question raises; what accounts for the justification of this leap from particular to general? Mill assumes that nature is uninformed and a particular instance is likely to produce the same effect under the same conditions. Hume, on the other hand, describes that the cause and effect relation is not a necessary connection but a matter of habit and this connection is inadequate to settle down the ground for the legitimacy of induction. Bradley, on the contrary, refuses that induction can move from particular to the general. Russell argues, more frustratingly, that the induction principle cannot be proved or disproved by appealing to experience. Despite being suspicious about the cogency of induction, it cannot be rejected as a process of reaching to the unknown from the known, as a method of producing new knowledge. For this, it is necessary to provide a rational ground for induction in which it is justified. First, this paper argues that there is no such universal logical principle to prove the justification of induction, and second, this justification is to be supported by appealing to the pragmatic worth of the process.

Grice and Searle on Meaning,

Abstract: Grice characterizes speaker meaning in terms of intentionality while Searle criticizes Grice  that he has not examined the notion of intentionality. This paper argues that the analysis of intentionality implicitly subsists in the Grician account of meaning. To support this, the aim of this paper is to show that that in different types of speech act, the Grician account successfully explains the two aspects of intentionality-the representation intention and the communication intention.

Does Multiple Realizability Lead to Reductionism?,

Abstract- The early proponents of functionalism (Putnam and Fodor) have put forward arguments for antireductionism. They argue that mental states are multiply realizable by possibly multifarious physical states. We cannot expect that psychological laws are reduced to the laws of physics in the way envisaged by identity theorists. This argument from multiple realizability has been challenged by Jaegwon Kim. After presenting the argument and Kim’s challenge, this paper considers Block’s response to Kim. I argue that Block’s response is unconvincing and claim that multiple realizability does not lead to antireductionism. In addition, by analyzing Lockean idea of nominal and real essence, I show that the functionalist explanation about the essence of mental states allows the local reduction of mental states to physical states.

Islamic Extremism in Bangladesh: Importance of Constructing a Neutral Attitude,

Abstract- Extremism is regarded as one of the most grievous threats in contemporary time. It has always been a complex idea incorporating various elements simultaneously such as political motives, spread of intolerance within the society, degradation of social and cultural values and most recently the misinterpretation of religions. Hence, it is a matter of paramount importance to understand the nexus between extremism and religion properly in order to minimize the threat effectively. Though there is no connection between Islam and extremism, Islam is very often associated with extremism. In Bangladesh, we have observed sporadic incidents of extremist activities in the distant past, which had been dealt with effective anti-extremism measures. However, we see a rise of extremist activities in the recent past. Therefore, we need to analyze the causes behind this sudden rise of extremist activities and construct a neutral attitude towards the problem deciphering the complexities. This paper is an attempt to analyze the current level of threat of extremism in Bangladesh, importance of constructing a neutral attitude towards extremism analyzing the perception of common people and suggest possible alternative methods apart from those which are already in effect in the country to eliminate the threat of extremism. 

Identity Theory, Multiple Realizability of Mental States and Funtionalism,

Abstract– In the philosophy of mind functionalism, in contrast with identity theory, claims that mental state types are not reducible to physical state types. This claim relies on the concept of multiple realizability of the mental states, which was introduced by Hilary Putnam. This paper analyzes identity theory, the concept of multiple realizability and different types of functionalism and shows that functionalism is consistent with identity theory.

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BOOK CHAPTER

Mahmuda Akand, Azmal Mahmud Khan, Women and Extremism in Bangladesh: Causes and Possible Responses, pp.64-76, 2019.

Abstract- The threat of extremism is multidimensional and ever changing. It is not Newtonian but Darwinian. Hence, it is difficult to develop a flawless counter-terrorism policy to eliminate the threat completely. Bangladesh is a Muslim majority country with secularism as one of its founding principles. The penetration of extremist ideas in the country undermined the secularist spirit to a great extent. The rising involvement of women along with men in extremism is an indication of moral rapture in the society. This problem needs to address vigorously and efficiently. The root causes behind the involvement of women in extremism should be unveiled and an unbiased effective policy needs to be formulated to eliminate future and prevailing threats. This paper attempts to unveil those issues and provide necessary guidelines to counter and prevent violent extremism.

Mahmuda Akand, GENDER DISCRIMINATION IN LANGUAGE, THE LANGUAGE RELATIVITY THEORY AND THE NECESSITY OF AN ORDINANCE TO CHECK GENDER BIASNESS IN LANGUAGE USED IN VARIOUS MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION AND ENTERTAINMENT, pp.60-74, 2021.

ABSTRACT- It has been proved already that components of languages are not always gender sensitive. Gender biasness in languages ignite the discriminatory attitude towards the lesser mentioned gender. For this reason some language communities have changed some grammatical components to ensure gender fairness in the concerned languages. This paper argues that changing the use of masculine pronouns and using more feminine terms is not sufficient to reduce gender discrimination in languages. Many languages contain abusive terms and words that undermines women, their body and women sexuality. These degrading terms are used in everyday conversations, films, various forms of literature and online activities. According to the language relativity theory language influences our thoughts and perceptions. In this paper I have considered the two versions of this theory and has argued that gender biased language constructs and promotes disrespectful and discriminatory attitudes and behaviors towards women and impedes all our efforts to achieve gender equality. This paper also claims that we need to construct rules and regulations to check gender biasness in everyday conversation and languages used in all types of writings, movies, songs, literature and other medium of entertainment and communication.

Mahmuda Akand, ভাষার আপেক্ষিকতা তত্ত্ব এবং বাংলা ভাষা ও সাহিত্যে নারী প্রসঙ্গ,

সারসংক্ষেপ- ভাষা দর্শন, সমাজ ভাষা বিজ্ঞান, মনোবিজ্ঞান এবং নৃবিজ্ঞানসহ জ্ঞানের অনেক শাখাতেই ভাষা এবং চিন্তার সম্পর্ক বিষয়ক প্রশ্ন গুরুত্বের সাথে বিবেচিত হয়ে আসছে। ভাষা নিছক মানবচিন্তা প্রকাশের মাধ্যম নয়, চিন্তনের প্রক্রিয়াকে প্রভাবিত করার ক্ষমতাও ভাষার রয়েছে বলে মনে করেন অনেক তাত্ত্বিক। এ শ্রেণীর তাত্ত্বিকদের মধ্যে সাপির (Sapir,1921) এবং ভর্ফের (Whorf,1956) ‘ভাষার আপেক্ষিকতা তত্ত্ব’ নানা দিক থেকে গভীর মনোযোগ ও গুরুত্ব পেয়ে এসেছে (Palmer, 1981)। এ তত্ত্ব অনুসারে,  ভাষার ভিন্নতা, চিন্তার ভিন্নতা তৈরি করে । অর্থাৎ, ভিন্ন ভাষাভাষী মানুষের জগৎ সম্পর্কিত দৃষ্টিভঙ্গি আলাদা। কোনো কোনো তাত্ত্বিক (যেমন, Heider ,1972) ভাষার আপেক্ষিকতা তত্ত্বকে খারিজ করবার চেষ্টা করেছেন। কিন্তু, তত্ত্বটি বিভিন্ন রূপ (পরিচ্ছেদ-১ এ আলোচনা করা হয়েছে) এখনো ভাষা দার্শনিক, নৃ-বৈজ্ঞানিক, সমাজ বৈজ্ঞানিক এবং মনোভাষাবৈজ্ঞানিক আলোচনায় গুরুত্বের সাথে বিবেচিত হয়ে আসছে (Gentner and Goldin-Meadow,2003)। ভাষার আপেক্ষিকতা তত্ত্বের দুর্বল রূপটিকে (পরিচ্ছেদ -১ এ আলোচনা করা হয়েছে) গ্রহণ করলেও আমাদের মেনে নিতে হবে যে ভাষা আমাদের চিন্তাকে অনেকাংশেই নিয়ন্ত্রণ এবং নির্ধারণ করতে সক্ষম। সে কারণে সামাজিক, সাংস্কৃতিক এবং রাজনৈতিক উপাদান হিসেবে ভাষার নানা মুখী পাঠ ও বিশ্লেষণের গুরুত্ব অপরিসীম। পিতৃতান্ত্রিক সমাজ ব্যবস্থায় যে ভাষা ব্যবহৃত হয় দৈনন্দিন কথোপকথনে, ইতিহাস সংরক্ষণে, সাহিত্য রচনায় কিংবা জ্ঞান নির্মাণে, সে ভাষা নারী ও পুরুষের জন্য সমান নয়, তা অনেকেই (Spender, 1998; Mills, 2008; আজাদ, ২০১৭; ইসলাম ও ফেরদৌস, ২০০১) প্রত্যক্ষ বা পরোক্ষভাবে দেখিয়েছেন । ভাষার আপেক্ষিকতা তত্ত্বকে স্বীকার করে নিলে এহেন অসম ভাষা নারীর উন্নয়ন এবং মর্যাদা প্রতিষ্ঠার ক্ষেত্রে গুরুতর বাঁধাস্বরূপ । কারণ, অসম ভাষা নারী-পুরুষের অসমতাকে আমাদের চিন্তায় বিকশিত হতে সহায়তা করে। বাংলা ভাষাতেও পিতৃতান্ত্রিক চর্চা এবং অসমতা লক্ষণীয়। এ প্রবন্ধটিতে ভাষার আপেক্ষিকতা তত্ত্বের সংক্ষিপ্ত আলোচনা সাপেক্ষে বাংলা ভাষায় নারীর বৈষম্যমূলক উপস্থাপন, নারীর প্রতি নেতিবাচক মনোভাব তৈরিতে কিভাবে প্রভাবক হিসেবে কাজ করে তার একটি বিশ্লেষণ উপস্থাপিত হবে। নারীর প্রতি ঘটে যাওয়া বিভিন্ন সহিংস আচরণের দায় নারীর উপরই আরোপনের প্রচেষ্টাও যে  বাংলা ভাষা ব্যবহারের সাধারণ রীতি থেকে অনুসৃত হতে পারে তার একটি চিত্রও উপস্থাপিত হবে এই প্রবন্ধে। নারী-পুরুষ অসমতা দূরীকরণে এবং নারীর প্রতি সম্মানজনক মনোভাব গঠনে নারীর জন্য বৈষম্যহীন ভাষা নির্মাণের গুরুত্বের বিষয়টিও এখানে আলোচিত হবে।

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SEMINAR

Mahmuda Akand, Kripkian Defense of Russell’s Theory of Description against Donellan’s Distinction,

Abstract- Russell’s theory of description (RTD) analyzes sentences in which definite descriptions occur in places in which proper names may occur. It is an early work in analytic philosophy, and represents one form of philosophical analysis. Russell had treated expressions like, "the current king of France," "the round square," and "the difference between A and B," as he treated proper names, and would treat sentences in which such expressions occur as grammatical subjects as if they were genuine subject-predicate sentences. Under RTD, such sentences would be regarded as existentially quantified general sentences. Russell maintained that despite their apparent grammatical form-that of subject-predicate sentences-the sentences that give rise to the puzzles are in fact existentially quantified sentences. They have the grammatical form of subject predicate sentences but the logical form of existentially quantified sentences, and it is the logical form of sentences that should serve as our guide for drawing inferences from sentences. According to Keith Donnellan, there are two distinct ways we may use a definite description such as "the current Emperor of Kentucky is gray", and thus makes his distinction between the referential and the attributive use of a definite description. He argues that Russell makes the mistake of attempting to analyze sentences removed from their context. We can mean different and distinct things while using the same sentence in different situations. Saul Kripke argues that while Donnellan is correct to point out two uses of the phrase, it does not follow that the phrase is ambiguous between two meanings. Kripke defends Russell's analysis of definite descriptions, and argues that Donnellan does not adequately distinguish meaning from use, or, speaker's meaning from sentence meaning. In this research I will analyze Kripke’s arguments to reveal whether they are sufficient to defend Russell’s theory of description.

The Possibility of an Existential Ethics: A Critical Analysis of Sartre’s Philosophy,

Abstract- There is a long debate regarding the possibility of existential ethics. Philosophers are mostly concerned with Jean Paul Sartre’s idea of individual freedom and responsibility based on the human existence. Sartre seems to dismiss all the preconceived standards for defining human existence advocating for a new notion of being that resulted in suggesting a new interpretation of morality. His idea of a free human being appears to be contradictory with the universal concept of right and wrong. Though he has restricted the idea of freedom by inducing the notion of responsibility, questions are raised regarding the effectiveness of his proposal. The aim of this project is to analyze Sartre’s view on human existence, freedom and responsibility to reveal whether it is incompatible as an ethical theory or not. I will compare the universal outlook of morality with Sartrean existential ethics and will relate Sartre’s perspectives with moral views of Aristotle (1992) and Immanuel Kant (1964). I will also examine the objections against Sartre’s view raised by Alvin Plantinga (1958) and will assess the possibility of an existential ethics.

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OTHER

Mahmuda Akand, ভাষায় নারী প্রসঙ্গ,

ভাষায় নারী প্রসঙ্গ II মাহমুদা আকন্দ - YouTube

Mahmuda Akand, জর্জ এডওয়ার্ড ম্যূরের সহজ বুদ্ধির দর্শন,

জর্জ এডওয়ার্ড ম্যুরের সহজ বুদ্ধির দর্শন ও ভাববাদ খণ্ডন ।। মাহমুদা আকন্দ ।। বোধিচিত্ত - YouTube

Mahmuda Akand, অভিজ্ঞতাবাদের সমালোচনায় কোয়াইনের দুই ডগমা,

অভিজ্ঞতাবাদের সমালোচনায় কোয়াইনের 'দুই ডগমা' ।। মাহমুদা আকন্দ ।। বোধিচিত্ত - YouTube

Mahmuda Akand, বৃটিশ ভাববাদের ধারাবাহিকতা ও বার্নার্ড বোসাঙ্কের দার্শনিক চিন্তা,

Video lecture

Public Lecture at ASK, Bangladesh,

https://www.facebook.com/events/2193239574304684/

পার্সের প্রয়োগবাদ,

Video Lecture 

হেগেলোত্তর ভাববাদঃ ফ্রান্সিস হার্বার্ট ব্রাডলে ও পরম সত্তার স্বরূপ,

Video Lecture

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